path: root/lib/stdlib/doc/src/string.xml

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<!DOCTYPE erlref SYSTEM "erlref.dtd">

<erlref>
  <header>
    <copyright>
      <year>1996</year><year>2018</year>
      <holder>Ericsson AB. All Rights Reserved.</holder>
    </copyright>
    <legalnotice>
      Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
      you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
      You may obtain a copy of the License at
 
          http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0

      Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
      distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
      WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
      See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
      limitations under the License.
    
    </legalnotice>

    <title>string</title>
    <prepared>Robert Virding</prepared>
    <responsible>Bjarne D&auml;cker</responsible>
    <docno>1</docno>
    <approved>Bjarne D&auml;cker</approved>
    <checked></checked>
    <date>1996-09-28</date>
    <rev>A</rev>
    <file>string.xml</file>
  </header>
  <module>string</module>
  <modulesummary>String processing functions.</modulesummary>
  <description>
    <p>This module provides functions for string processing.</p>
    <p>A string in this module is represented by <seealso marker="unicode#type-chardata">
    <c>unicode:chardata()</c></seealso>, that is, a list of codepoints,
    binaries with UTF-8-encoded codepoints
    (<em>UTF-8 binaries</em>), or a mix of the two.</p>
    <code>
"abcd"               is a valid string
&lt;&lt;"abcd">>           is a valid string
["abcd"]             is a valid string
&lt;&lt;"abc..åäö"/utf8>>  is a valid string
&lt;&lt;"abc..åäö">>       is NOT a valid string,
                     but a binary with Latin-1-encoded codepoints
[&lt;&lt;"abc">>, "..åäö"] is a valid string
[atom]               is NOT a valid string</code>
    <p>
      This module operates on grapheme clusters. A <em>grapheme cluster</em>
      is a user-perceived character, which can be represented by several
      codepoints.
    </p>
    <code>
"å"  [229] or [97, 778]
"e̊"  [101, 778]</code>
    <p>
      The string length of "ß↑e̊" is 3, even though it is represented by the
      codepoints <c>[223,8593,101,778]</c> or the UTF-8 binary
      <c>&lt;&lt;195,159,226,134,145,101,204,138>></c>.
    </p>
    <p>
      Grapheme clusters for codepoints of class <c>prepend</c>
      and non-modern (or decomposed) Hangul is not handled for performance
      reasons in
      <seealso marker="#find/3"><c>find/3</c></seealso>,
      <seealso marker="#replace/3"><c>replace/3</c></seealso>,
      <seealso marker="#split/2"><c>split/2</c></seealso>,
      <seealso marker="#lexemes/2"><c>split/2</c></seealso> and
      <seealso marker="#trim/3"><c>trim/3</c></seealso>.
    </p>
    <p>
      Splitting and appending strings is to be done on grapheme clusters
      borders.
      There is no verification that the results of appending strings are
      valid or normalized.
    </p>
    <p>
      Most of the functions expect all input to be normalized to one form,
      see for example <seealso marker="unicode#characters_to_nfc_list/1">
      <c>unicode:characters_to_nfc_list/1</c></seealso>.
    </p>
    <p>
      Language or locale specific handling of input is not considered
      in any function.
    </p>
    <p>
      The functions can crash for non-valid input strings. For example,
      the functions expect UTF-8 binaries but not all functions
      verify that all binaries are encoded correctly.
    </p>
    <p>
      Unless otherwise specified the return value type is the same as
      the input type. That is, binary input returns binary output,
      list input returns a list output, and mixed input can return a
      mixed output.</p>
      <code>
1> string:trim("  sarah  ").
"sarah"
2> string:trim(&lt;&lt;"  sarah  ">>).
&lt;&lt;"sarah">>
3> string:lexemes("foo bar", " ").
["foo","bar"]
4> string:lexemes(&lt;&lt;"foo bar">>, " ").
[&lt;&lt;"foo">>,&lt;&lt;"bar">>]</code>
    <p>This module has been reworked in Erlang/OTP 20 to
    handle <seealso marker="unicode#type-chardata">
    <c>unicode:chardata()</c></seealso> and operate on grapheme
    clusters. The <seealso marker="#oldapi"> <c>old
    functions</c></seealso> that only work on Latin-1 lists as input
    are still available but should not be used, they will be
    deprecated in a future release.
    </p>
  </description>

  <datatypes>
    <datatype>
      <name name="direction"/>
      <name name="grapheme_cluster"/>
      <desc>
        <p>A user-perceived character, consisting of one or more
        codepoints.</p>
      </desc>
    </datatype>
  </datatypes>

  <funcs>

    <func>
      <name name="casefold" arity="1" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Convert a string to a comparable string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Converts <c><anno>String</anno></c> to a case-agnostic
	  comparable string. Function <c>casefold/1</c> is preferred
	  over <c>lowercase/1</c> when two strings are to be compared
	  for equality. See also <seealso marker="#equal/4"><c>equal/4</c></seealso>.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:casefold("Ω and ẞ SHARP S").</input>
"ω and ss sharp s"</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="chomp" arity="1" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Remove trailing end of line control characters.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Returns a string where any trailing <c>\n</c> or
	  <c>\r\n</c> have been removed from <c><anno>String</anno></c>.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
182> <input>string:chomp(&lt;&lt;"\nHello\n\n">>).</input>
&lt;&lt;"\nHello">>
183> <input>string:chomp("\nHello\r\r\n").</input>
"\nHello\r"</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="equal" arity="2"/>
      <name name="equal" arity="3" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <name name="equal" arity="4" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Test string equality.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Returns <c>true</c> if <c><anno>A</anno></c> and
          <c><anno>B</anno></c> are equal, otherwise <c>false</c>.
	</p>
	<p>
	  If <c><anno>IgnoreCase</anno></c> is <c>true</c>
	  the function does <seealso marker="#casefold/1">
	  <c>casefold</c>ing</seealso> on the fly before the equality test.
	</p>
	<p>If <c><anno>Norm</anno></c> is not <c>none</c>
	the function applies normalization on the fly before the equality test.
	There are four available normalization forms:
	<seealso marker="unicode#characters_to_nfc_list/1"> <c>nfc</c></seealso>,
	<seealso marker="unicode#characters_to_nfd_list/1"> <c>nfd</c></seealso>,
	<seealso marker="unicode#characters_to_nfkc_list/1"> <c>nfkc</c></seealso>, and
	<seealso marker="unicode#characters_to_nfkd_list/1"> <c>nfkd</c></seealso>.
	</p>
	<p>By default,
	<c><anno>IgnoreCase</anno></c> is <c>false</c> and
	<c><anno>Norm</anno></c> is <c>none</c>.</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:equal("åäö", &lt;&lt;"åäö"/utf8>>).</input>
true
2> <input>string:equal("åäö", unicode:characters_to_nfd_binary("åäö")).</input>
false
3> <input>string:equal("åäö", unicode:characters_to_nfd_binary("ÅÄÖ"), true, nfc).</input>
true</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="find" arity="2" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <name name="find" arity="3" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Find start of substring.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Removes anything before <c><anno>SearchPattern</anno></c> in <c><anno>String</anno></c>
	  and returns the remainder of the string or <c>nomatch</c> if <c><anno>SearchPattern</anno></c> is not
	  found.
          <c><anno>Dir</anno></c>, which can be <c>leading</c> or
	  <c>trailing</c>, indicates from which direction characters
	  are to be searched.
        </p>
	<p>
          By default, <c><anno>Dir</anno></c> is <c>leading</c>.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:find("ab..cd..ef", ".").</input>
"..cd..ef"
2> <input>string:find(&lt;&lt;"ab..cd..ef">>, "..", trailing).</input>
&lt;&lt;"..ef">>
3> <input>string:find(&lt;&lt;"ab..cd..ef">>, "x", leading).</input>
nomatch
4> <input>string:find("ab..cd..ef", "x", trailing).</input>
nomatch</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="is_empty" arity="1" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Check if the string is empty.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns <c>true</c> if <c><anno>String</anno></c> is the
        empty string, otherwise <c>false</c>.</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:is_empty("foo").</input>
false
2> <input>string:is_empty(["",&lt;&lt;>>]).</input>
true</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="length" arity="1" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Calculate length of the string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Returns the number of grapheme clusters in <c><anno>String</anno></c>.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:length("ß↑e̊").</input>
3
2> <input>string:length(&lt;&lt;195,159,226,134,145,101,204,138>>).</input>
3</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="lexemes" arity="2" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Split string into lexemes.</fsummary>
      <desc>
	<p>
	  Returns a list of lexemes in <c><anno>String</anno></c>, separated
          by the grapheme clusters in <c><anno>SeparatorList</anno></c>.
	</p>
	<p>
	  Notice that, as shown in this example, two or more
          adjacent separator graphemes clusters in <c><anno>String</anno></c>
          are treated as one. That is, there are no empty
          strings in the resulting list of lexemes.
	  See also <seealso marker="#split/3"><c>split/3</c></seealso> which returns
	  empty strings.
	</p>
	<p>Notice that <c>[$\r,$\n]</c> is one grapheme cluster.</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:lexemes("abc de̊fxxghix jkl\r\nfoo", "x e" ++ [[$\r,$\n]]).</input>
["abc","de̊f","ghi","jkl","foo"]
2> <input>string:lexemes(&lt;&lt;"abc de̊fxxghix jkl\r\nfoo"/utf8>>, "x e" ++ [$\r,$\n]).</input>
[&lt;&lt;"abc">>,&lt;&lt;"de̊f"/utf8>>,&lt;&lt;"ghi">>,&lt;&lt;"jkl\r\nfoo">>]</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="lowercase" arity="1" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Convert a string to lowercase</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Converts <c><anno>String</anno></c> to lowercase.
	</p>
	<p>
	  Notice that function <seealso marker="#casefold/1"><c>casefold/1</c></seealso>
	  should be used when converting a string to
	  be tested for equality.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
2> <input>string:lowercase(string:uppercase("Michał")).</input>
"michał"</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="next_codepoint" arity="1" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Pick the first codepoint.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Returns the first codepoint in <c><anno>String</anno></c>
	  and the rest of <c><anno>String</anno></c> in the tail. Returns
	  an empty list if <c><anno>String</anno></c> is empty or an
	  <c>{error, String}</c> tuple if the next byte is invalid.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:next_codepoint(unicode:characters_to_binary("e̊fg")).</input>
[101|&lt;&lt;"̊fg"/utf8>>]</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="next_grapheme" arity="1" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Pick the first grapheme cluster.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Returns the first grapheme cluster in <c><anno>String</anno></c>
	  and the rest of <c><anno>String</anno></c> in the tail. Returns
	  an empty list if <c><anno>String</anno></c> is empty or an
	  <c>{error, String}</c> tuple if the next byte is invalid.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:next_grapheme(unicode:characters_to_binary("e̊fg")).</input>
["e̊"|&lt;&lt;"fg">>]</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="nth_lexeme" arity="3" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Pick the nth lexeme.</fsummary>
      <desc>
	<p>Returns lexeme number <c><anno>N</anno></c> in
	<c><anno>String</anno></c>, where lexemes are separated by
	the grapheme clusters in <c><anno>SeparatorList</anno></c>.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:nth_lexeme("abc.de̊f.ghiejkl", 3, ".e").</input>
"ghi"</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="pad" arity="2" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <name name="pad" arity="3" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <name name="pad" arity="4" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Pad a string to given length.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Pads <c><anno>String</anno></c> to <c><anno>Length</anno></c> with
	  grapheme cluster <c><anno>Char</anno></c>.
	  <c><anno>Dir</anno></c>, which can be <c>leading</c>, <c>trailing</c>,
	  or <c>both</c>, indicates where the padding should be added.
	</p>
	<p>By default, <c><anno>Char</anno></c> is <c>$\s</c> and
	<c><anno>Dir</anno></c> is <c>trailing</c>.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:pad(&lt;&lt;"He̊llö"/utf8>>, 8).</input>
[&lt;&lt;72,101,204,138,108,108,195,182>>,32,32,32]
2> <input>io:format("'~ts'~n",[string:pad("He̊llö", 8, leading)]).</input>
'   He̊llö'
3> <input>io:format("'~ts'~n",[string:pad("He̊llö", 8, both)]).</input>
' He̊llö  '</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="prefix" arity="2" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Remove prefix from string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  If <c><anno>Prefix</anno></c> is the prefix of
	  <c><anno>String</anno></c>, removes it and returns the
	  remainder of <c><anno>String</anno></c>, otherwise returns
	  <c>nomatch</c>.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:prefix(&lt;&lt;"prefix of string">>, "pre").</input>
&lt;&lt;"fix of string">>
2> <input>string:prefix("pre", "prefix").</input>
nomatch</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="replace" arity="3" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <name name="replace" arity="4" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Replace a pattern in string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Replaces <c><anno>SearchPattern</anno></c> in <c><anno>String</anno></c>
	  with <c><anno>Replacement</anno></c>.
	  <c><anno>Where</anno></c>, default <c>leading</c>, indicates whether
	  the <c>leading</c>, the <c>trailing</c> or <c>all</c> encounters of
	  <c><anno>SearchPattern</anno></c> are to be replaced.
	</p>
	<p>Can be implemented as:</p>
	<pre>lists:join(Replacement, split(String, SearchPattern, Where)).</pre>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:replace(&lt;&lt;"ab..cd..ef">>, "..", "*").</input>
[&lt;&lt;"ab">>,"*",&lt;&lt;"cd..ef">>]
2> <input>string:replace(&lt;&lt;"ab..cd..ef">>, "..", "*", all).</input>
[&lt;&lt;"ab">>,"*",&lt;&lt;"cd">>,"*",&lt;&lt;"ef">>]</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="reverse" arity="1" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Reverses a string</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Returns the reverse list of the grapheme clusters in <c><anno>String</anno></c>.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> Reverse = <input>string:reverse(unicode:characters_to_nfd_binary("ÅÄÖ")).</input>
[[79,776],[65,776],[65,778]]
2> <input>io:format("~ts~n",[Reverse]).</input>
ÖÄÅ</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="slice" arity="2" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <name name="slice" arity="3" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Extract a part of string</fsummary>
      <desc>
	<p>Returns a substring of <c><anno>String</anno></c> of
	at most <c><anno>Length</anno></c> grapheme clusters, starting at position
	<c><anno>Start</anno></c>.</p>
	<p>By default, <c><anno>Length</anno></c> is <c>infinity</c>.</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:slice(&lt;&lt;"He̊llö Wörld"/utf8>>, 4).</input>
&lt;&lt;"ö Wörld"/utf8>>
2> <input>string:slice(["He̊llö ", &lt;&lt;"Wörld"/utf8>>], 4,4).</input>
"ö Wö"
3> <input>string:slice(["He̊llö ", &lt;&lt;"Wörld"/utf8>>], 4,50).</input>
"ö Wörld"</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="split" arity="2" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <name name="split" arity="3" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Split a string into substrings.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Splits <c><anno>String</anno></c> where <c><anno>SearchPattern</anno></c>
	  is encountered and return the remaining parts.
	  <c><anno>Where</anno></c>, default <c>leading</c>, indicates whether
	  the <c>leading</c>, the <c>trailing</c> or <c>all</c> encounters of
	  <c><anno>SearchPattern</anno></c> will split <c><anno>String</anno></c>.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
0> <input>string:split("ab..bc..cd", "..").</input>
["ab","bc..cd"]
1> <input>string:split(&lt;&lt;"ab..bc..cd">>, "..", trailing).</input>
[&lt;&lt;"ab..bc">>,&lt;&lt;"cd">>]
2> <input>string:split(&lt;&lt;"ab..bc....cd">>, "..", all).</input>
[&lt;&lt;"ab">>,&lt;&lt;"bc">>,&lt;&lt;>>,&lt;&lt;"cd">>]</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="take" arity="2" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <name name="take" arity="3" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <name name="take" arity="4" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Take leading or trailing parts.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Takes characters from <c><anno>String</anno></c> as long as
        the characters are members of set <c><anno>Characters</anno></c>
	or the complement of set <c><anno>Characters</anno></c>.
        <c><anno>Dir</anno></c>,
        which can be <c>leading</c> or <c>trailing</c>, indicates from
        which direction characters are to be taken.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
5> <input>string:take("abc0z123", lists:seq($a,$z)).</input>
{"abc","0z123"}
6> <input>string:take(&lt;&lt;"abc0z123">>, lists:seq($0,$9), true, leading).</input>
{&lt;&lt;"abc">>,&lt;&lt;"0z123">>}
7> <input>string:take("abc0z123", lists:seq($0,$9), false, trailing).</input>
{"abc0z","123"}
8> <input>string:take(&lt;&lt;"abc0z123">>, lists:seq($a,$z), true, trailing).</input>
{&lt;&lt;"abc0z">>,&lt;&lt;"123">>}</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="titlecase" arity="1" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Convert a string to titlecase.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Converts <c><anno>String</anno></c> to titlecase.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:titlecase("ß is a SHARP s").</input>
"Ss is a SHARP s"</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="to_float" arity="1"/>
      <fsummary>Return a float whose text representation is the integers
        (ASCII values) of a string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Argument <c><anno>String</anno></c> is expected to start with a
          valid text represented float (the digits are ASCII values).
          Remaining characters in the string after the float are returned in
          <c><anno>Rest</anno></c>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <pre>
> <input>{F1,Fs} = string:to_float("1.0-1.0e-1"),</input>
> <input>{F2,[]} = string:to_float(Fs),</input>
> <input>F1+F2.</input>
0.9
> <input>string:to_float("3/2=1.5").</input>
{error,no_float}
> <input>string:to_float("-1.5eX").</input>
{-1.5,"eX"}</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="to_integer" arity="1"/>
      <fsummary>Return an integer whose text representation is the integers
        (ASCII values) of a string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Argument <c><anno>String</anno></c> is expected to start with a
          valid text represented integer (the digits are ASCII values).
          Remaining characters in the string after the integer are returned in
          <c><anno>Rest</anno></c>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <pre>
> <input>{I1,Is} = string:to_integer("33+22"),</input>
> <input>{I2,[]} = string:to_integer(Is),</input>
> <input>I1-I2.</input>
11
> <input>string:to_integer("0.5").</input>
{0,".5"}
> <input>string:to_integer("x=2").</input>
{error,no_integer}</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="to_graphemes" arity="1" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Convert a string to a list of grapheme clusters.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Converts <c><anno>String</anno></c> to a list of grapheme clusters.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:to_graphemes("ß↑e̊").</input>
[223,8593,[101,778]]
2> <input>string:to_graphemes(&lt;&lt;"ß↑e̊"/utf8>>).</input>
[223,8593,[101,778]]</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="trim" arity="1" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <name name="trim" arity="2" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <name name="trim" arity="3" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Trim leading or trailing, or both, characters.</fsummary>
      <desc>
	<p>
	  Returns a string, where leading or trailing, or both,
	  <c><anno>Characters</anno></c> have been removed.
	  <c><anno>Dir</anno></c> which can be <c>leading</c>, <c>trailing</c>,
	  or <c>both</c>, indicates from which direction characters
	  are to be removed.
	</p>
	<p> Default <c><anno>Characters</anno></c> is the set of
	nonbreakable whitespace codepoints, defined as
	Pattern_White_Space in
	<url href="http://unicode.org/reports/tr31/">Unicode Standard Annex #31</url>.
	<c>By default, <anno>Dir</anno></c> is <c>both</c>.
	</p>
	<p>
	  Notice that <c>[$\r,$\n]</c> is one grapheme cluster according
	  to the Unicode Standard.
	</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:trim("\t  Hello  \n").</input>
"Hello"
2> <input>string:trim(&lt;&lt;"\t  Hello  \n">>, leading).</input>
&lt;&lt;"Hello  \n">>
3> <input>string:trim(&lt;&lt;".Hello.\n">>, trailing, "\n.").</input>
&lt;&lt;".Hello">></pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="uppercase" arity="1" since="OTP 20.0"/>
      <fsummary>Convert a string to uppercase.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>
	  Converts <c><anno>String</anno></c> to uppercase.
	</p>
	<p>See also <seealso marker="#titlecase/1"><c>titlecase/1</c></seealso>.</p>
	<p><em>Example:</em></p>
	<pre>
1> <input>string:uppercase("Michał").</input>
"MICHAŁ"</pre>
      </desc>
    </func>

  </funcs>

  <section>
    <marker id="oldapi"/>
    <title>Obsolete API functions</title>
    <p>Here follows the function of the old API.
    These functions only work on a list of Latin-1 characters.
    </p>
    <note><p>
      The functions are kept for backward compatibility, but are
      not recommended.
      They will be deprecated in a future release.
    </p>
    <p>Any undocumented functions in <c>string</c> are not to be used.</p>
    </note>
  </section>

  <funcs>
    <func>
      <name name="centre" arity="2"/>
      <name name="centre" arity="3"/>
      <fsummary>Center a string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a string, where <c><anno>String</anno></c> is centered in the
          string and surrounded by blanks or <c><anno>Character</anno></c>.
	  The resulting string has length <c><anno>Number</anno></c>.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#pad/3"><c>pad/3</c></seealso>.
	</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="chars" arity="2"/>
      <name name="chars" arity="3"/>
      <fsummary>Return a string consisting of numbers of characters.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a string consisting of <c><anno>Number</anno></c> characters
          <c><anno>Character</anno></c>. Optionally, the string can end with
          string <c><anno>Tail</anno></c>.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="lists#duplicate/2"><c>lists:duplicate/2</c></seealso>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="chr" arity="2"/>
      <fsummary>Return the index of the first occurrence of
        a character in a string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns the index of the first occurrence of
          <c><anno>Character</anno></c> in <c><anno>String</anno></c>. Returns
          <c>0</c> if <c><anno>Character</anno></c> does not occur.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#find/2"><c>find/2</c></seealso>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="concat" arity="2"/>
      <fsummary>Concatenate two strings.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Concatenates <c><anno>String1</anno></c> and
          <c><anno>String2</anno></c> to form a new string
          <c><anno>String3</anno></c>, which is returned.</p>
	<p>
	  This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	  Use <c>[<anno>String1</anno>, <anno>String2</anno>]</c> as
	  <c>Data</c> argument, and call
	  <seealso marker="unicode#characters_to_list/2">
	  <c>unicode:characters_to_list/2</c></seealso> or
	  <seealso marker="unicode#characters_to_binary/2">
	  <c>unicode:characters_to_binary/2</c></seealso>
	  to flatten the output.
	</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="copies" arity="2"/>
      <fsummary>Copy a string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a string containing <c><anno>String</anno></c> repeated
          <c><anno>Number</anno></c> times.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="lists#duplicate/2"><c>lists:duplicate/2</c></seealso>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="cspan" arity="2"/>
      <fsummary>Span characters at start of a string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns the length of the maximum initial segment of
          <c><anno>String</anno></c>, which consists entirely of characters
          not from <c><anno>Chars</anno></c>.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#take/3"><c>take/3</c></seealso>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <code type="none">
> string:cspan("\t    abcdef", " \t").
0</code>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="join" arity="2"/>
      <fsummary>Join a list of strings with separator.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a string with the elements of <c><anno>StringList</anno></c>
          separated by the string in <c><anno>Separator</anno></c>.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="lists#join/2"><c>lists:join/2</c></seealso>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <code type="none">
> join(["one", "two", "three"], ", ").
"one, two, three"</code>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="left" arity="2"/>
      <name name="left" arity="3"/>
      <fsummary>Adjust left end of a string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns <c><anno>String</anno></c> with the length adjusted in
          accordance with <c><anno>Number</anno></c>. The left margin is
          fixed. If <c>length(<anno>String</anno>)</c> &lt;
          <c><anno>Number</anno></c>, then <c><anno>String</anno></c> is padded
          with blanks or <c><anno>Character</anno></c>s.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#pad/2"><c>pad/2</c></seealso> or
	<seealso marker="#pad/3"><c>pad/3</c></seealso>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <code type="none">
> string:left("Hello",10,$.).
"Hello....."</code>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="len" arity="1"/>
      <fsummary>Return the length of a string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns the number of characters in <c><anno>String</anno></c>.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#length/1"><c>length/1</c></seealso>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="rchr" arity="2"/>
      <fsummary>Return the index of the last occurrence of
        a character in a string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns the index of the last occurrence of
          <c><anno>Character</anno></c> in <c><anno>String</anno></c>. Returns
          <c>0</c> if <c><anno>Character</anno></c> does not occur.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#find/3"><c>find/3</c></seealso>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="right" arity="2"/>
      <name name="right" arity="3"/>
      <fsummary>Adjust right end of a string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns <c><anno>String</anno></c> with the length adjusted in
          accordance with <c><anno>Number</anno></c>. The right margin is
          fixed. If the length of <c>(<anno>String</anno>)</c> &lt;
          <c><anno>Number</anno></c>, then <c><anno>String</anno></c> is padded
          with blanks or <c><anno>Character</anno></c>s.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#pad/3"><c>pad/3</c></seealso>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <code type="none">
> string:right("Hello", 10, $.).
".....Hello"</code>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="rstr" arity="2"/>
      <fsummary>Find the index of a substring.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns the position where the last occurrence of
          <c><anno>SubString</anno></c> begins in <c><anno>String</anno></c>.
          Returns <c>0</c> if <c><anno>SubString</anno></c>
          does not exist in <c><anno>String</anno></c>.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#find/3"><c>find/3</c></seealso>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <code type="none">
> string:rstr(" Hello Hello World World ", "Hello World").
8</code>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="span" arity="2"/>
      <fsummary>Span characters at start of a string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns the length of the maximum initial segment of
          <c><anno>String</anno></c>, which consists entirely of characters
          from <c><anno>Chars</anno></c>.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#take/2"><c>take/2</c></seealso>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <code type="none">
> string:span("\t    abcdef", " \t").
5</code>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="str" arity="2"/>
      <fsummary>Find the index of a substring.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns the position where the first occurrence of
          <c><anno>SubString</anno></c> begins in <c><anno>String</anno></c>.
          Returns <c>0</c> if <c><anno>SubString</anno></c>
          does not exist in <c><anno>String</anno></c>.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#find/2"><c>find/2</c></seealso>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <code type="none">
> string:str(" Hello Hello World World ", "Hello World").
8</code>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="strip" arity="1"/>
      <name name="strip" arity="2"/>
      <name name="strip" arity="3"/>
      <fsummary>Strip leading or trailing characters.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a string, where leading or trailing, or both, blanks or a
          number of <c><anno>Character</anno></c> have been removed.
          <c><anno>Direction</anno></c>, which can be <c>left</c>, <c>right</c>,
          or <c>both</c>, indicates from which direction blanks are to be
          removed. <c>strip/1</c> is equivalent to
          <c>strip(String, both)</c>.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#trim/3"><c>trim/3</c></seealso>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <code type="none">
> string:strip("...Hello.....", both, $.).
"Hello"</code>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="sub_string" arity="2"/>
      <name name="sub_string" arity="3"/>
      <fsummary>Extract a substring.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a substring of <c><anno>String</anno></c>, starting at
          position <c><anno>Start</anno></c> to the end of the string, or to
          and including position <c><anno>Stop</anno></c>.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#slice/3"><c>slice/3</c></seealso>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <code type="none">
sub_string("Hello World", 4, 8).
"lo Wo"</code>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="substr" arity="2"/>
      <name name="substr" arity="3"/>
      <fsummary>Return a substring of a string.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a substring of <c><anno>String</anno></c>, starting at
          position <c><anno>Start</anno></c>, and ending at the end of the
          string or at length <c><anno>Length</anno></c>.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#slice/3"><c>slice/3</c></seealso>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <code type="none">
> substr("Hello World", 4, 5).
"lo Wo"</code>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="sub_word" arity="2"/>
      <name name="sub_word" arity="3"/>
      <fsummary>Extract subword.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns the word in position <c><anno>Number</anno></c> of
          <c><anno>String</anno></c>. Words are separated by blanks or
          <c><anno>Character</anno></c>s.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#nth_lexeme/3"><c>nth_lexeme/3</c></seealso>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <code type="none">
> string:sub_word(" Hello old boy !",3,$o).
"ld b"</code>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="to_lower" arity="1" clause_i="1"/>
      <name name="to_lower" arity="1" clause_i="2"/>
      <name name="to_upper" arity="1" clause_i="1"/>
      <name name="to_upper" arity="1" clause_i="2"/>
      <fsummary>Convert case of string (ISO/IEC 8859-1).</fsummary>
      <type variable="String" name_i="1"/>
      <type variable="Result" name_i="1"/>
      <type variable="Char"/>
      <type variable="CharResult"/>
      <desc>
        <p>The specified string or character is case-converted. Notice that
          the supported character set is ISO/IEC 8859-1 (also called Latin 1);
          all values outside this set are unchanged</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso> use
	<seealso marker="#lowercase/1"><c>lowercase/1</c></seealso>,
	<seealso marker="#uppercase/1"><c>uppercase/1</c></seealso>,
	<seealso marker="#titlecase/1"><c>titlecase/1</c></seealso> or
	<seealso marker="#casefold/1"><c>casefold/1</c></seealso>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="tokens" arity="2"/>
      <fsummary>Split string into tokens.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns a list of tokens in <c><anno>String</anno></c>, separated
          by the characters in <c><anno>SeparatorList</anno></c>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <code type="none">
> tokens("abc defxxghix jkl", "x ").
["abc", "def", "ghi", "jkl"]</code>
        <p>Notice that, as shown in this example, two or more
          adjacent separator characters in <c><anno>String</anno></c>
          are treated as one. That is, there are no empty
          strings in the resulting list of tokens.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#lexemes/2"><c>lexemes/2</c></seealso>.</p>
      </desc>
    </func>

    <func>
      <name name="words" arity="1"/>
      <name name="words" arity="2"/>
      <fsummary>Count blank separated words.</fsummary>
      <desc>
        <p>Returns the number of words in <c><anno>String</anno></c>, separated
          by blanks or <c><anno>Character</anno></c>.</p>
	<p>This function is <seealso marker="#oldapi">obsolete</seealso>.
	Use
	<seealso marker="#lexemes/2"><c>lexemes/2</c></seealso>.</p>
        <p><em>Example:</em></p>
        <code type="none">
> words(" Hello old boy!", $o).
4</code>
      </desc>
    </func>
  </funcs>

  <section>
    <title>Notes</title>
    <p>Some of the general string functions can seem to overlap each
      other. The reason is that this string package is the
      combination of two earlier packages and all functions of
      both packages have been retained.</p>
  </section>

</erlref>