diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'erts/emulator')
-rw-r--r-- | erts/emulator/beam/beam_bp.c | 3 | ||||
-rw-r--r-- | erts/emulator/beam/beam_load.c | 147 | ||||
-rw-r--r-- | erts/emulator/beam/ops.tab | 12 | ||||
-rw-r--r-- | erts/emulator/test/bif_SUITE.erl | 281 |
4 files changed, 362 insertions, 81 deletions
diff --git a/erts/emulator/beam/beam_bp.c b/erts/emulator/beam/beam_bp.c index dd13cd179a..53f283ba39 100644 --- a/erts/emulator/beam/beam_bp.c +++ b/erts/emulator/beam/beam_bp.c @@ -486,7 +486,8 @@ erts_find_local_func(Eterm mfa[3]) { for (i = 0; i < n; ++i) { code_ptr = code_base[MI_FUNCTIONS+i]; ASSERT(((BeamInstr) BeamOp(op_i_func_info_IaaI)) == code_ptr[0]); - ASSERT(mfa[0] == ((Eterm) code_ptr[2])); + ASSERT(mfa[0] == ((Eterm) code_ptr[2]) || + is_nil((Eterm) code_ptr[2])); if (mfa[1] == ((Eterm) code_ptr[3]) && ((BeamInstr) mfa[2]) == code_ptr[4]) { return code_ptr + 5; diff --git a/erts/emulator/beam/beam_load.c b/erts/emulator/beam/beam_load.c index dd788df6e4..d54fe603d8 100644 --- a/erts/emulator/beam/beam_load.c +++ b/erts/emulator/beam/beam_load.c @@ -507,6 +507,7 @@ static int verify_chunks(LoaderState* stp); static int load_atom_table(LoaderState* stp); static int load_import_table(LoaderState* stp); static int read_export_table(LoaderState* stp); +static int is_bif(Eterm mod, Eterm func, unsigned arity); static int read_lambda_table(LoaderState* stp); static int read_literal_table(LoaderState* stp); static int read_line_table(LoaderState* stp); @@ -666,7 +667,7 @@ erts_prepare_loading(LoaderState* stp, Process *c_p, Eterm group_leader, /* * Initialize code area. */ - stp->code_buffer_size = erts_next_heap_size(2048 + stp->num_functions, 0); + stp->code_buffer_size = 2048 + stp->num_functions; stp->code = (BeamInstr *) erts_alloc(ERTS_ALC_T_CODE, sizeof(BeamInstr) * stp->code_buffer_size); @@ -1218,8 +1219,7 @@ load_atom_table(LoaderState* stp) GetInt(stp, 4, stp->num_atoms); stp->num_atoms++; stp->atom = erts_alloc(ERTS_ALC_T_LOADER_TMP, - erts_next_heap_size((stp->num_atoms*sizeof(Eterm)), - 0)); + stp->num_atoms*sizeof(Eterm)); /* * Read all atoms. @@ -1264,9 +1264,7 @@ load_import_table(LoaderState* stp) GetInt(stp, 4, stp->num_imports); stp->import = erts_alloc(ERTS_ALC_T_LOADER_TMP, - erts_next_heap_size((stp->num_imports * - sizeof(ImportEntry)), - 0)); + stp->num_imports * sizeof(ImportEntry)); for (i = 0; i < stp->num_imports; i++) { int n; Eterm mod; @@ -1315,16 +1313,8 @@ load_import_table(LoaderState* stp) static int read_export_table(LoaderState* stp) { - static struct { - Eterm mod; - Eterm func; - int arity; - } allow_redef[] = { - /* The BIFs that are allowed to be redefined by Erlang code */ - {am_erlang,am_apply,2}, - {am_erlang,am_apply,3}, - }; int i; + BeamInstr* address; GetInt(stp, 4, stp->num_exps); if (stp->num_exps > stp->num_functions) { @@ -1340,7 +1330,6 @@ read_export_table(LoaderState* stp) Uint value; Eterm func; Uint arity; - Export* e; GetInt(stp, 4, n); GetAtom(stp, n, func); @@ -1358,29 +1347,34 @@ read_export_table(LoaderState* stp) if (value == 0) { LoadError2(stp, "export table entry %d: label %d not resolved", i, n); } - stp->export[i].address = stp->code + value; + stp->export[i].address = address = stp->code + value; /* - * Check that we are not redefining a BIF (except the ones allowed to - * redefine). + * Find out if there is a BIF with the same name. */ - if ((e = erts_find_export_entry(stp->module, func, arity)) != NULL) { - if (e->code[3] == (BeamInstr) em_apply_bif) { - int j; - for (j = 0; j < sizeof(allow_redef)/sizeof(allow_redef[0]); j++) { - if (stp->module == allow_redef[j].mod && - func == allow_redef[j].func && - arity == allow_redef[j].arity) { - break; - } - } - if (j == sizeof(allow_redef)/sizeof(allow_redef[0])) { - LoadError2(stp, "exported function %T/%d redefines BIF", - func, arity); - } - } + if (!is_bif(stp->module, func, arity)) { + continue; + } + + /* + * This is a stub for a BIF. + * + * It should not be exported, and the information in its + * func_info instruction should be invalidated so that it + * can be filtered out by module_info(functions) and by + * any other functions that walk through all local functions. + */ + + if (stp->labels[n].patches) { + LoadError3(stp, "there are local calls to the stub for " + "the BIF %T:%T/%d", + stp->module, func, arity); } + stp->export[i].address = NULL; + address[-1] = 0; + address[-2] = NIL; + address[-3] = NIL; } return 1; @@ -1388,6 +1382,27 @@ read_export_table(LoaderState* stp) return 0; } + +static int +is_bif(Eterm mod, Eterm func, unsigned arity) +{ + Export* e = erts_find_export_entry(mod, func, arity); + if (e == NULL) { + return 0; + } + if (e->code[3] != (BeamInstr) em_apply_bif) { + return 0; + } + if (mod == am_erlang && func == am_apply && arity == 3) { + /* + * erlang:apply/3 is a special case -- it is implemented + * as an instruction and it is OK to redefine it. + */ + return 0; + } + return 1; +} + static int read_lambda_table(LoaderState* stp) { @@ -1703,9 +1718,9 @@ read_code_header(LoaderState* stp) #define CodeNeed(w) do { \ ASSERT(ci <= code_buffer_size); \ if (code_buffer_size < ci+(w)) { \ - code_buffer_size = erts_next_heap_size(ci+(w), 0); \ - stp->code = code \ - = (BeamInstr *) erts_realloc(ERTS_ALC_T_CODE, \ + code_buffer_size = 2*ci+(w); \ + stp->code = code = \ + (BeamInstr *) erts_realloc(ERTS_ALC_T_CODE, \ (void *) code, \ code_buffer_size * sizeof(BeamInstr)); \ } \ @@ -2457,6 +2472,9 @@ load_code(LoaderState* stp) case op_int_code_end: stp->code_buffer_size = code_buffer_size; stp->ci = ci; + stp->function = THE_NON_VALUE; + stp->genop = NULL; + stp->specific_op = -1; return 1; } @@ -4272,17 +4290,24 @@ final_touch(LoaderState* stp) */ for (i = 0; i < stp->num_exps; i++) { - Export* ep = erts_export_put(stp->module, stp->export[i].function, - stp->export[i].arity); + Export* ep; + BeamInstr* address = stp->export[i].address; + + if (address == NULL) { + /* Skip stub for a BIF */ + continue; + } + ep = erts_export_put(stp->module, stp->export[i].function, + stp->export[i].arity); if (!on_load) { - ep->address = stp->export[i].address; + ep->address = address; } else { /* * Don't make any of the exported functions * callable yet. */ ep->address = ep->code+3; - ep->code[4] = (BeamInstr) stp->export[i].address; + ep->code[4] = (BeamInstr) address; } } @@ -5054,7 +5079,9 @@ functions_in_module(Process* p, /* Process whose heap to use. */ BeamInstr* code; int i; Uint num_functions; + Uint need; Eterm* hp; + Eterm* hp_end; Eterm result = NIL; if (is_not_atom(mod)) { @@ -5067,19 +5094,28 @@ functions_in_module(Process* p, /* Process whose heap to use. */ } code = modp->code; num_functions = code[MI_NUM_FUNCTIONS]; - hp = HAlloc(p, 5*num_functions); + need = 5*num_functions; + hp = HAlloc(p, need); + hp_end = hp + need; for (i = num_functions-1; i >= 0 ; i--) { BeamInstr* func_info = (BeamInstr *) code[MI_FUNCTIONS+i]; Eterm name = (Eterm) func_info[3]; int arity = (int) func_info[4]; Eterm tuple; - ASSERT(is_atom(name)); - tuple = TUPLE2(hp, name, make_small(arity)); - hp += 3; - result = CONS(hp, tuple, result); - hp += 2; + /* + * If the function name is [], this entry is a stub for + * a BIF that should be ignored. + */ + ASSERT(is_atom(name) || is_nil(name)); + if (is_atom(name)) { + tuple = TUPLE2(hp, name, make_small(arity)); + hp += 3; + result = CONS(hp, tuple, result); + hp += 2; + } } + HRelease(p, hp_end, hp); return result; } @@ -5122,9 +5158,11 @@ native_addresses(Process* p, Eterm mod) int arity = (int) func_info[4]; Eterm tuple; - ASSERT(is_atom(name)); + ASSERT(is_atom(name) || is_nil(name)); /* [] if BIF stub */ if (func_info[1] != 0) { - Eterm addr = erts_bld_uint(&hp, NULL, func_info[1]); + Eterm addr; + ASSERT(is_atom(name)); + addr = erts_bld_uint(&hp, NULL, func_info[1]); tuple = erts_bld_tuple(&hp, NULL, 3, name, make_small(arity), addr); result = erts_bld_cons(&hp, NULL, tuple, result); } @@ -5627,19 +5665,28 @@ stub_final_touch(LoaderState* stp, BeamInstr* fp) { int i; int n = stp->num_exps; + Eterm mod = fp[2]; Eterm function = fp[3]; int arity = fp[4]; #ifdef HIPE Lambda* lp; #endif + if (is_bif(mod, function, arity)) { + fp[1] = 0; + fp[2] = 0; + fp[3] = 0; + fp[4] = 0; + return; + } + /* * Test if the function should be exported. */ for (i = 0; i < n; i++) { if (stp->export[i].function == function && stp->export[i].arity == arity) { - Export* ep = erts_export_put(fp[2], function, arity); + Export* ep = erts_export_put(mod, function, arity); ep->address = fp+5; return; } diff --git a/erts/emulator/beam/ops.tab b/erts/emulator/beam/ops.tab index fc53a88a3a..f051f6aa5b 100644 --- a/erts/emulator/beam/ops.tab +++ b/erts/emulator/beam/ops.tab @@ -829,16 +829,20 @@ call_ext_only Ar=u==2 Bif=u$bif:erlang:load_nif/2 => allocate u Ar | i_call_ext # -# The apply/2 and apply/3 BIFs are instructions. +# apply/2 is an instruction, not a BIF. # call_ext u==2 u$func:erlang:apply/2 => i_apply_fun call_ext_last u==2 u$func:erlang:apply/2 D => i_apply_fun_last D call_ext_only u==2 u$func:erlang:apply/2 => i_apply_fun_only -call_ext u==3 u$func:erlang:apply/3 => i_apply -call_ext_last u==3 u$func:erlang:apply/3 D => i_apply_last D -call_ext_only u==3 u$func:erlang:apply/3 => i_apply_only +# +# The apply/3 BIF is an instruction. +# + +call_ext u==3 u$bif:erlang:apply/3 => i_apply +call_ext_last u==3 u$bif:erlang:apply/3 D => i_apply_last D +call_ext_only u==3 u$bif:erlang:apply/3 => i_apply_only # # The exit/1 and throw/1 BIFs never execute the instruction following them; diff --git a/erts/emulator/test/bif_SUITE.erl b/erts/emulator/test/bif_SUITE.erl index c7617d3b90..90c89cc12b 100644 --- a/erts/emulator/test/bif_SUITE.erl +++ b/erts/emulator/test/bif_SUITE.erl @@ -25,7 +25,9 @@ init_per_group/2,end_per_group/2, init_per_testcase/2,end_per_testcase/2, display/1, display_huge/0, - types/1, + erl_bif_types/1,guard_bifs_in_erl_bif_types/1, + shadow_comments/1, + specs/1,improper_bif_stubs/1,auto_imports/1, t_list_to_existing_atom/1,os_env/1,otp_7526/1, binary_to_atom/1,binary_to_existing_atom/1, atom_to_binary/1,min_max/1]). @@ -33,7 +35,9 @@ suite() -> [{ct_hooks,[ts_install_cth]}]. all() -> - [types, t_list_to_existing_atom, os_env, otp_7526, + [erl_bif_types, guard_bifs_in_erl_bif_types, shadow_comments, + specs, improper_bif_stubs, auto_imports, + t_list_to_existing_atom, os_env, otp_7526, display, atom_to_binary, binary_to_atom, binary_to_existing_atom, min_max]. @@ -86,33 +90,20 @@ deeep(N,Acc) -> deeep(N) -> deeep(N,[hello]). +erl_bif_types(Config) when is_list(Config) -> + ensure_erl_bif_types_compiled(), -types(Config) when is_list(Config) -> - c:l(erl_bif_types), - case erlang:function_exported(erl_bif_types, module_info, 0) of - false -> - %% Fail cleanly. - ?line ?t:fail("erl_bif_types not compiled"); - true -> - types_1() - end. - -types_1() -> - ?line List0 = erlang:system_info(snifs), + List0 = erlang:system_info(snifs), %% Ignore missing type information for hipe BIFs. - ?line List = [MFA || {M,_,_}=MFA <- List0, M =/= hipe_bifs], + List = [MFA || {M,_,_}=MFA <- List0, M =/= hipe_bifs], - case [MFA || MFA <- List, not known_types(MFA)] of - [] -> - types_2(List); - BadTypes -> - io:put_chars("No type information:\n"), - io:format("~p\n", [lists:sort(BadTypes)]), - ?line ?t:fail({length(BadTypes),bifs_without_types}) - end. + KnownTypes = [MFA || MFA <- List, known_types(MFA)], + io:format("There are ~p BIFs with type information in erl_bif_types.", + [length(KnownTypes)]), + erl_bif_types_2(KnownTypes). -types_2(List) -> +erl_bif_types_2(List) -> BadArity = [MFA || {M,F,A}=MFA <- List, begin Types = erl_bif_types:arg_types(M, F, A), @@ -120,14 +111,14 @@ types_2(List) -> end], case BadArity of [] -> - types_3(List); + erl_bif_types_3(List); [_|_] -> io:put_chars("Bifs with bad arity\n"), io:format("~p\n", [BadArity]), ?line ?t:fail({length(BadArity),bad_arity}) end. -types_3(List) -> +erl_bif_types_3(List) -> BadSmokeTest = [MFA || {M,F,A}=MFA <- List, begin try erl_bif_types:type(M, F, A) of @@ -151,9 +142,220 @@ types_3(List) -> ?line ?t:fail({length(BadSmokeTest),bad_smoke_test}) end. +guard_bifs_in_erl_bif_types(_Config) -> + ensure_erl_bif_types_compiled(), + + List0 = erlang:system_info(snifs), + List = [{F,A} || {erlang,F,A} <- List0, + erl_internal:guard_bif(F, A)], + Not = [FA || {F,A}=FA <- List, + not erl_bif_types:is_known(erlang, F, A)], + case Not of + [] -> + ok; + [_|_] -> + io:put_chars( + ["Dialyzer requires that all guard BIFs " + "have type information in erl_bif_types.\n\n" + "The following guard BIFs have no type information " + "in erl_bif_types:\n\n", + [io_lib:format(" ~p/~p\n", [F,A]) || {F,A} <- Not]]), + ?t:fail() + end. + +shadow_comments(_Config) -> + ensure_erl_bif_types_compiled(), + + List0 = erlang:system_info(snifs), + List1 = [MFA || {M,_,_}=MFA <- List0, M =/= hipe_bifs], + List = [MFA || MFA <- List1, not is_operator(MFA)], + HasTypes = [MFA || {M,F,A}=MFA <- List, + erl_bif_types:is_known(M, F, A)], + Path = get_code_path(), + BifRel = sofs:relation(HasTypes, [{m,f,a}]), + BifModules = sofs:to_external(sofs:projection(1, BifRel)), + AbstrByModule = [extract_abstract(Mod, Path) || Mod <- BifModules], + Specs0 = [extract_specs(Mod, Abstr) || + {Mod,Abstr} <- AbstrByModule], + Specs = lists:append(Specs0), + SpecFuns0 = [F || {F,_} <- Specs], + SpecFuns = sofs:relation(SpecFuns0, [{m,f,a}]), + HasTypesAndSpecs = sofs:intersection(BifRel, SpecFuns), + Commented0 = lists:append([extract_comments(Mod, Path) || + Mod <- BifModules]), + Commented = sofs:relation(Commented0, [{m,f,a}]), + {NoComments0,_,NoBifSpecs0} = + sofs:symmetric_partition(HasTypesAndSpecs, Commented), + NoComments = sofs:to_external(NoComments0), + NoBifSpecs = sofs:to_external(NoBifSpecs0), + + case NoComments of + [] -> + ok; + [_|_] -> + io:put_chars( + ["If a BIF stub has both a spec and has type information in " + "erl_bif_types, there *must*\n" + "be a comment in the source file to make that immediately " + "obvious.\n\nThe following comments are missing:\n\n", + [io_lib:format("%% Shadowed by erl_bif_types: ~p:~p/~p\n", + [M,F,A]) || {M,F,A} <- NoComments]]), + ?t:fail() + end, + + case NoBifSpecs of + [] -> + ok; + [_|_] -> + io:put_chars( + ["The following functions have \"shadowed\" comments " + "claiming that there is type information in erl_bif_types,\n" + "but actually there is no such type information.\n\n" + "Therefore, the following comments should be removed:\n\n", + [io_lib:format("%% Shadowed by erl_bif_types: ~p:~p/~p\n", + [M,F,A]) || {M,F,A} <- NoBifSpecs]]), + ?t:fail() + end. + +extract_comments(Mod, Path) -> + Beam = which(Mod, Path), + SrcDir = filename:join(filename:dirname(filename:dirname(Beam)), "src"), + Src = filename:join(SrcDir, atom_to_list(Mod) ++ ".erl"), + {ok,Bin} = file:read_file(Src), + Lines0 = binary:split(Bin, <<"\n">>, [global]), + Lines1 = [T || <<"%% Shadowed by erl_bif_types: ",T/binary>> <- Lines0], + {ok,ReMFA} = re:compile("([^:]*):([^/]*)/(\\d*)"), + Lines = [L || L <- Lines1, re:run(L, ReMFA, [{capture,[]}]) =:= match], + [begin + {match,[M,F,A]} = re:run(L, ReMFA, [{capture,all_but_first,list}]), + {list_to_atom(M),list_to_atom(F),list_to_integer(A)} + end || L <- Lines]. + +ensure_erl_bif_types_compiled() -> + c:l(erl_bif_types), + case erlang:function_exported(erl_bif_types, module_info, 0) of + false -> + %% Fail cleanly. + ?t:fail("erl_bif_types not compiled"); + true -> + ok + end. + known_types({M,F,A}) -> erl_bif_types:is_known(M, F, A). +specs(_) -> + List0 = erlang:system_info(snifs), + + %% Ignore missing type information for hipe BIFs. + List1 = [MFA || {M,_,_}=MFA <- List0, M =/= hipe_bifs], + + %% Ignore all operators. + List = [MFA || MFA <- List1, not is_operator(MFA)], + + %% Extract specs from the abstract code for all BIFs. + Path = get_code_path(), + BifRel = sofs:relation(List, [{m,f,a}]), + BifModules = sofs:to_external(sofs:projection(1, BifRel)), + AbstrByModule = [extract_abstract(Mod, Path) || Mod <- BifModules], + Specs0 = [extract_specs(Mod, Abstr) || + {Mod,Abstr} <- AbstrByModule], + Specs = lists:append(Specs0), + BifSet = sofs:set(List, [function]), + SpecRel0 = sofs:relation(Specs, [{function,spec}]), + SpecRel = sofs:restriction(SpecRel0, BifSet), + + %% Find BIFs without specs. + NoSpecs0 = sofs:difference(BifSet, sofs:domain(SpecRel)), + NoSpecs = sofs:to_external(NoSpecs0), + case NoSpecs of + [] -> + ok; + [_|_] -> + io:put_chars("The following BIFs don't have specs:\n"), + [print_mfa(MFA) || MFA <- NoSpecs], + ?t:fail() + end. + +is_operator({erlang,F,A}) -> + erl_internal:arith_op(F, A) orelse + erl_internal:bool_op(F, A) orelse + erl_internal:comp_op(F, A) orelse + erl_internal:list_op(F, A) orelse + erl_internal:send_op(F, A); +is_operator(_) -> false. + +extract_specs(M, Abstr) -> + [{make_mfa(M, Name),Spec} || {attribute,_,spec,{Name,Spec}} <- Abstr]. + +make_mfa(M, {F,A}) -> {M,F,A}; +make_mfa(M, {M,_,_}=MFA) -> MFA. + +improper_bif_stubs(_) -> + Bifs0 = erlang:system_info(snifs), + Bifs = [MFA || {M,_,_}=MFA <- Bifs0, M =/= hipe_bifs], + Path = get_code_path(), + BifRel = sofs:relation(Bifs, [{m,f,a}]), + BifModules = sofs:to_external(sofs:projection(1, BifRel)), + AbstrByModule = [extract_abstract(Mod, Path) || Mod <- BifModules], + Funcs0 = [extract_functions(Mod, Abstr) || + {Mod,Abstr} <- AbstrByModule], + Funcs = lists:append(Funcs0), + BifSet = sofs:set(Bifs, [function]), + FuncRel0 = sofs:relation(Funcs, [{function,code}]), + FuncRel = sofs:restriction(FuncRel0, BifSet), + [check_stub(MFA, Body) || {MFA,Body} <- sofs:to_external(FuncRel)], + ok. + +auto_imports(_Config) -> + Path = get_code_path(), + {erlang,Abstr} = extract_abstract(erlang, Path), + SpecFuns = [Name || {attribute,_,spec,{Name,_}} <- Abstr], + auto_imports(SpecFuns, 0). + +auto_imports([{F,A}|T], Errors) -> + case erl_internal:bif(F, A) of + false -> + io:format("~p/~p: not auto-imported, but spec claims it " + "is auto-imported", [F,A]), + auto_imports(T, Errors+1); + true -> + auto_imports(T, Errors) + end; +auto_imports([{erlang,F,A}|T], Errors) -> + case erl_internal:bif(F, A) of + false -> + auto_imports(T, Errors); + true -> + io:format("~p/~p: auto-imported, but " + "spec claims it is *not* auto-imported", [F,A]), + auto_imports(T, Errors+1) + end; +auto_imports([], 0) -> + ok; +auto_imports([], Errors) -> + ?t:fail({Errors,inconsistencies}). + +extract_functions(M, Abstr) -> + [{{M,F,A},Body} || {function,_,F,A,Body} <- Abstr]. + +check_stub({erlang,apply,3}, _) -> + ok; +check_stub({_,F,A}, B) -> + try + [{clause,_,Args,[],Body}] = B, + A = length(Args), + [{call,_,{remote,_,{atom,_,erlang},{atom,_,nif_error}},[_]}] = Body + catch + _:_ -> + io:put_chars("Invalid body for the following BIF stub:\n"), + Func = {function,0,F,A,B}, + io:put_chars(erl_pp:function(Func)), + io:nl(), + io:put_chars("The body should be: erlang:nif_error(undef)"), + ?t:fail() + end. + t_list_to_existing_atom(Config) when is_list(Config) -> ?line all = list_to_existing_atom("all"), ?line ?MODULE = list_to_existing_atom(?MODULE_STRING), @@ -442,3 +644,30 @@ min_max(Config) when is_list(Config) -> id(I) -> I. +%% Get code path, including the path for the erts application. +get_code_path() -> + case code:lib_dir(erts) of + {error,bad_name} -> + Erts = filename:join([code:root_dir(),"erts","preloaded","ebin"]), + [Erts|code:get_path()]; + _ -> + code:get_path() + end. + +which(Mod, Path) -> + which_1(atom_to_list(Mod) ++ ".beam", Path). + +which_1(Base, [D|Ds]) -> + Path = filename:join(D, Base), + case filelib:is_regular(Path) of + true -> Path; + false -> which_1(Base, Ds) + end. +print_mfa({M,F,A}) -> + io:format("~p:~p/~p", [M,F,A]). + +extract_abstract(Mod, Path) -> + Beam = which(Mod, Path), + {ok,{Mod,[{abstract_code,{raw_abstract_v1,Abstr}}]}} = + beam_lib:chunks(Beam, [abstract_code]), + {Mod,Abstr}. |